<i>Solanum carolinense</i> L.

EPPO BulletinEarly View DATASHEETS ON PESTS RECOMMENDED FOR REGULATIONFree Access Solanum carolinense L. First published: 08 January 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/epp.12894AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use check box below share version article.I have read accept the Wiley Online Library UseShareable LinkUse link a this article with your friends colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat 1 IDENTITY Preferred name: carolinense. Other scientific names: obliquatum Raf., floridanum var. pohlianum Dunal, pleei Shuttlew. ex occidentale (Shuttlew. Dunal) Chapm., albiflorum Kuntze, Revis. f. (Kuntze) Benke, godfreyi Shinners. Taxonomic position: Phylum Magnoliophyta; Class Angiospermae; Order Solanales; Family Solanaceae. Common Carolina horse nettle, nettle. Code: SOLCA. Phytosanitary categorization: A2 List no. 447 2 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION Asia: Bangladesh, China (Zhejiang), India (Tamil Nadu), Japan, Republic Korea, Nepal. region: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Russia (Far East), Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom. North America: Canada (Nova Scotia, Ontario, Québec), USA (native range highlighted in bold) (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, District Colombia, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Jersey, Mexico, York, Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Wisconsin, Wyoming). Oceania: Australia, Zealand. 3 HISTORY OF INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD is native America (USDA, NRCS, 2021). The species occurs all states except Nevada, Montana, Hawaii Alaska 2021; Wahlert et al., 2015). It also can be found southernmost parts (Quebec, Ontario) as well Nova Scotia (Bassett & Munro, 1986; VASCAN, database USDA, NRCS (2021) indicates ‘native’ for states, although it clear that has spread now invaded other (Wahlert USDA GRIN (2021), example, recognizes 32 including province (Ontario) state Mexico (Sonora) native. al. (2015) pointed out prior European settlement could not determined certainty. In their study, they interfered its distribution based on herbarium specimens stated ‘… extends from central Florida north York Massachusetts west Nebraska about 97th meridian west’. occurrence Haiti entirely conclusive. Websites such inaturalist.org databases (CABI, GBIF, GRIN, 2021) list findings S. However, Martínez (2017) do Mexico. there no evidence been collected Brazil since time Pohl's collections [from 1852] (Stehmann 2013)’. authors recognize any further occurrences Central or America. was first introduced into region presumably second half 20th century. Early records were small, transient populations scattered across (e.g. Norway). 4 MORPHOLOGY 4.1 Plant type Perennial herb. 4.2 Description following description primarily Bassett Munro (1986) (2015): perennial herb, up 1.2 m tall, unbranched branched near base, both vertical horizontal roots, latter spreading horizontally 5 m. Stems are armed slender yellowish spines (prickles) 6 mm long. Leaves sparsely moderately prickles 6.5 long major veins abaxially adaxially. Leave blades 2–15 × 2–10 cm size, margins lobed 1–4 lobes per side, sometimes very deeply almost midrib, apex acute obtuse, petioles 0.4–4 size. Inflorescences consist 1–20 flowers. They white, lilac, purple star-shaped five yellow poricidal anthers. Fruits 1–2 1–1.8 light green darker mottling pale greenish-white when immature, bright at maturity glabrous. Seeds 1.7–2.4 1.6–1.8 flattened-reniform, lenticular, yellow, surface finely foveolate. BIOLOGY ECOLOGY 5.1 General north-east USA, growing season (i.e. seed emergence) begins middle May (Ilnicki Fertig, 1962). Northern typically April ends October (Hakes 2018). reaches anthesis by early July, while fruits begin mature mid-September Canada. period shoot emergence late June (Miyazaki 2005; Miyazaki Ito, 2004). propagates creeping roots seeds. extensive root system consists taproot 1962; Miyazaki, 2008). reach depth 240 grow soil depths 45 become several metres (2008) demonstrated different sections had functions: bending part forms new shoots; surrounding area; used storage. Shoots produced adventitious buds. way, form large clusters (up 10 parent plant) covering areas within few years. Belowground over-winter, shoots (= ramets) emerge spring. Root fragments buds weeks thus plants. Ilnicki Fertig (1962) ≥2 length ≥3.5 diameter show 100% regeneration success. grown greenhouse 23–32°C showed level 63% 94% (Wehtje 1987). prolific producer. produce ca. 40–170 seeds fruit, single plant producing 5000 germinate plants retain viability least years buried 8–12 according Brown Porter (1942). Solomon (1983) remarked remained viable 7 stored under laboratory conditions. pollinated variety generalist insects. America, non-specialist bees (Lasioglossum spp., Bombus spp. Xylocopa spp.) described main pollinators (Quesada-Aguilar 2008; anthers must vibrated release pollen (i.e., buzz pollination; Hardin 1972). an andromonoecious bear either hermaphrodite flowers male both) gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI; Travers 2004), which quite uncommon among weed species. (2004) some plasticity strength GSI carolinense: more self-compatible age self-fertility increases cross scarce. Moreover, genotypes differ degree indicating broad sense heritability self-incompatibility’ (Travers See Kariyat (2011) details. 5.2 Habitats grows various habitats, prairies, deciduous woodlands, swamps, pine forests, disturbed roadsides, grazed mowed pastures, ditches, cultivated fields, urban waste areas, utility railroad embankments many crops (Table 1). TABLE 1. Main associated Crop Country (ISO code) References Arachis hypogaea US Hackett (1987) Beta vulgaris IT Vidotto Selvaggi (2018) Cucurbita pepo AT Follak (2020) Glycine max AT, IT, RU, (2020); (1987), Van Wychen Gossypium hirsutum Medicago sativa (2015), Phaseolus Frank (1990) tuberosum Triticum aestivum Zea mays FR, Whaley Vangessel (2002), Within region, recorded habitats banks rivers Waal; Dirkse 2007), ruderal port areas; Junghans, 2013; Pérez 2020), pastures crop fields (Follak, 2020; Hohla Zahlheimer, 2018; Klingenhagen 2012; invades roadsides maize, oil-pumpkin soybean 2020). crops, sugar beet, beans soybean, mainly Italy (Saglia 2006; Additionally, reported sites ditches (Barberis 2014; Zanotti, 1993). 2004, localities sandy riverbanks particularly along River Waal (Dirkse 2007; FLORON Verspreidingsatlas Vaatplanten, Apart presence rivers, natural region. 5.3 Environmental requirements over wide climatic range. predominantly between northern latitudes 28° 45° western longitudes 70° 98° (GBIF, limited cool environments intense frost, 1986). frost sensitive tops usually die autumn. Roots tolerate low temperatures 3°C (in depth), but killed −2 −4°C Wehtje Nishida (0.5 35 length) seedlings 12 h. needs warm germination, sprouting growth. rapidly during hot weather (2005) controlled conditions, detached highest 15 30°C. This temperature optimal growth accordance results Onen (2006) Japanese conditions (Osaka Prefecture). (2000) germination does occur 14°C field exposure heat 55°C 72 h 60°C 24 (Nishida 1999b). Seedlings resistant shading. Urakawa Koide (2004b) did decrease shading (50% sunlight), sharply declined ≥75% sunlight. Experimental data indicated types textures, thrives textured, well-drained soils high moisture persist riverbanks, paddy rice moist periodically saturated locations Imaizumi 2006). drought resistant, attributed penetrating 5.4 Natural enemies host specific Generalist will potentially attack plant, these unlikely cause enough damage influence establishment. 5.5 Uses benefits anything particular. 5.6 Pathways movement may contaminant grain imported (1) animal feed mixtures (2) human consumption, processing. consumption likely less contaminated than regulations stricter. countries, assumed together soybean. most (Ouren, For Jehlik (1989) Junghans (2013) noted originating probable source Romania Costea (1996) probably originated shipping, especially trade (‘soya-bean waste’). Kurokawa (2001) Japan via contamination grain. infest particular maize (Prostko 1994; Wychen, 2015; Wiles 1992), harvested present. Seed lots therefore infested risk being contaminated. wheat included pathways would too (2012) Zanotti (1993) Germany due cultivation varieties (Zea mays) abroad. appeared where thought obtained pers. communication A recent survey revealed fourth common troublesome rangeland, hay (Van Indeed, considered (both berries seed) occurred through (Robbins 1952). Imported (Anonymous, 1896). checked samples Japan. Although recognized each sample, those recently observed non-native noxious (incl. carolinense). Likewise, Asai (2007) detect (including Phleum pratense, alfalfa, Sudan grass) shown distances assisted mechanisms. distance speculated inter-state orchards 1970s onwards. small area 1981 1990s onwards, widespread increased rapidly. 1994, approximately 25% surveyed 1999a). 2013, 76.3% total forage (11 200 ha; cited Tominaga Kurokawab, agricultural machinery strongly suspected dispersal vector field-to-field. underlined fact headlands farm tracks roads (southern Styria, Austria). km IMPACT 6.1 Effects infests spring peanuts, cotton, potato, beans, tomato, vegetables, soybeans 2015, Webster, Unfortunately, competition documented. Only studies focused impact yield. extent yield loss depends largely density type, low-growing seem affected. Some documented effects densities peanut (Arachis L.) snap bean (Phaseolus L.). impacts expressed reductions. study seemed indicate problem peanuts. year row (the density) reduced yield, same effect contrast, greatly Eight planted 4.6-m 16 36% 55%, respectively. (2002) strong competitor maize. At (Delaware, USA), significant differences trends trials (untreated control vs. herbicide options). Prostko (1994) similar findings, trend higher yields plots treatments. (just after Cirsium arvense) production drought-resistant presumed reduce quality (Beeler 1994). population experimental site averaged 86 stems m2 tall fescue dominated pasture (Richmond/USA; Tolson 2012). Pasture weeds, carolinense, desirable biomass direct resources displacement valuable losses available. potential economic farmers if spreads establishes areas. conducted Thus, effective essential pastures. already locally (maize, oil-pumpkin; Figure 1) (Austria: Follak, Italy: Germany: 2012), though infestation levels FIGURE 1Open figure viewerPowerPoint (AT) (EPPO Global Database courtesy Swen Follak), (field margin) Follak). Specific additional operating costs accessible, exception Todua (1975), who Georgia (Abkhazia) oil (Pelargonium roseum Wild) decreased addition, tea (Camellia sinensis) plantations deteriorated. general, managed way weeds use mechanical measures. ploughing, mowing difficult because capacity regeneration. only susceptible herbicides multiple applications required adequate Armel 2003; Beeler behaviour Therefore, management actions, programs Vangessel, 2002) tillage passes, raise costs. 6.2 social There currently available negative biodiversity. conservation value invaded, biodiversity importance. island ecosystems interior forests (Kim 2017). toxic livestock Fortunately, palatable readily unless animals confined overgrazed fields. contains glycoalkaloids, a-solasonine a-solamargine (Cipollini Levey, 1997). Glycoalkaloids induce gastrointestinal systemic effects, neurotoxicity. presented amount anecdotal intoxication livestock. pests crops. reservoir pathogens, Alternaria solani Sorauer, Septoria lycopersici Speg., tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) cucumber (CMV). important phytophagous insect include Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), juncta (Germar), Gargaphia (Heidemann), Trichobaris trinotata Epitrix fuscula (Crotch), cucumeris (Harris), Manduca sexta (Haworth), Zonosemata electa Phthorimaea operculella Nichols 1992; Wise, Wise Sacchi, 1996). semi-urban parks), incurs CONTROL pro-active integrated strategy effectively manage should environments, practices tailored habitat invaded. NPPOs provide land managers, stakeholders identification guides information preventive measures techniques. Control difficult, system, ability number produced. successful tactics employed, combination methods, chemical, mechanical, cultural 7.1 Mechanical Frequent ineffective (Gorrell 1981). respect, rosette pattern keeps sufficiently supplied carbohydrates frequently heights. Deep (ploughing) normally populations, underground development below-ground storage organs) disturbed. Tillage ploughs, disks, cultivators increase infestations relocating breaking dormancy buds, resulting 7.2 Chemical Herbicides method controlling Applications certain treatments glyphosate, auxin-type dicamba, picloram, aminopyralid), sulfonylureas (primisulfuron, nicosulfuron) triketones (mesotrione) somewhat 2004; 2002). 8 REGULATORY STATUS recommended regulation quarantine pest. ‘black-listed’ (banned sale) Italian Piemonte (Piedmont) D.G.R. 46-5100 18 December 2012 monitoring network protected (Natura, 2000). Canada, listed ‘Primary Noxious Weed Seeds’ Act (http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2016/2016-05-18/html/sor-dors93-eng.html). declared ‘noxious weed’ Alaska, Iowa Nevada (https://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=6440). Zealand, status ‘Quarantine pest’ (Official Zealand Pest Register: https://pierpestregister.mpi.govt.nz/PestsRegister/ImportCommodity/). 9 PHYTOSANITARY MEASURES (2022) recommends phytosanitary grains max, aestivum. Grains pest-free (PFA) free (PFPS) place (PFPP) coupled sorting consignment, sampled ISPM 31 inspected, lot devitalized appropriate method. Certified used. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS datasheet expert working group analysed February 2022. composition was: G. Brundu (University Sassari, Department Agriculture, IT), J Byrd (Mississippi State University, US), D. Chapman (Stirling UK), (AGES, AT), Fried (ANSES, FR), M Herbst (Julius Kühn Institut, DE), T (Institute Protection, National Agriculture Food Research Organization, JP), Y Kulakova (All Russian Quarantine Center, RU), J. Valkenburg (National Protection NL). REFERENCES Anonymous (1896) Two hundred weeds: How know them how kill them. Yearbook States 1895, pp. 592– 611. Washington DC, Government Printing Office, https://wssa.net/wp-content/uploads/antique/USDA%20yearbook%201895.pdf (accessed 25 2022). GR, Wilson HP, Richardson RJ, Hines TE (2003) Mesotrione combinations postemergence horsenettle (Solanum carolinense) corn mays). Technology 17, 65– 72. M, S, Shimizu N, Enomoto (2007): Hay 1995 contained exotic weeds. Journal Science 54, 219– 225. G Barberis, C Nepi, S Peccenini, L Peruzzi (eds.) (2014): Notulae alla flora esotica d'Italia: (202-226) - In: checklist della Flora vascolare Italiana: 17 (2027–2070). IJ, DB (1986): biology Canadian 78. rostratum Dunal. 66, 977– 991. 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